Cairns and the people in them

 Cairns and the people in them

In “Beside the Ocean of Time: a chronology of Neolithic Burial Monuments and Houses in Orkney”, Seren Griffiths lists the carbon dates of human bones from 10 Orkney cairns. The cumulative data for these skeletal remains demonstrates that about 75% of the people lain in the cairns died roughly before 3000BC, the rest of them died later, mostly through the 3rd millennium BC. Similar findings are suggested by dating of skeletons in Scotland and England, and it is likely that the fall in numbers of bodies in cairns is, as much as anything, because after a couple of hundred years of existence the cairns were in poor condition, and often collapsing, making them sometimes risky places to enter.

Audrey Henshall, in “Neolithic cairns of Orkney” finds that there are around 80 cairns in Orkney, of which half are stalled cairns, linear structures with an oblong space within a great mound. The name refers to upright stones that divide the side walls into partitioned stalls.

As well as the 40 or so that are recognisable, there are about 25, cairns that are in poor condition, and cannot be categorised, but are probably also stalled cairns. There another 14 that are in some way hybridised. A common hybrid is called the Maeshowe type, but this is a misnomer, Maeshowe compares to no other Neolithic structure on Orkney, (or probably anywhere else) 

Maeshowe is a splendid ancient mound, in the heart of which is a large rectangular space with a corbelled ceiling. The design of the interior is very fine with a tall standing stone built into each corner. The room is entered through a long tunnel to one of the inner walls of the structure, and behind each of the other three walls of the interior room are small galleries which would apparently be blocked off from view, by blocking stones, to any normal user of the main room.

The entrance to Maeshowe has a stone beside it, fitted into a recess, that can be pulled across and used to block entrance into the interior. The design of this arrangement makes it clear that people wishing to make the closure would have to be within Maeshowe to do it.

The other cairns of the Maeshowe type have a central room with galleries arrayed around the walls of the room, the interiors of which, in many cases look suspiciously like bedding places. 

A few cairns defy brief description, but are complex structures, some with bed-like rooms, others on two levels. It is assumed that these structures were all built in Neolithic times, and most of them probably were. It’s worth keeping an open mind though, on some of these structures in Orkney. 

One of the most accessible cairns is Unstan Cairn which is famous because it lent it’s name to the early Neolithic pottery of Orkney, Unstan Ware. 

The cairn was excavated in 1884  by Robert Stewart Clouston, who reported on his work in “Notice of the Excavation of a Chambered Cairn of The Stone Age , at Unstan , in the Loch of Stennis, Orkney” 

He discovered that an area of burned material, ash and charcoal, was spread out in the area directly in front of the entrance to the cairn. This suggests that burning of fuel, and possibly cooking of meat may have taken place in this area. George Petrie, drawing a section across Wideford Cairn indicates the presence of venting through the ceiling of that cairn, and it is likely that the same is true of Unstan Cairn. 

Clouston clearly had the privilege of examining a cairn, the roof of which was still more or less intact. He writes:-

“At the side of the..... flagstone in this com

partment there was a small space, not covered with white clay, and in this we found several fragments of different urns. A more striking instance of how the relics must have been scattered is the fact of a piece of pottery, found in the fourth compartment, fitting into an urn, the rest of which was dug up in this second compartment of the chamber. By far the greater portion of the relics found in the chamber were in this compartment. Overlying its clay floor was a stratum of black ashy or earthy matter, largely composed of charcoal, in which great quantities of pottery, and several flint chips and flakes were found.

Upon the black stratum there were laid several burials in the contracted posture (and) the black stratum which covered the floor of the second compartment extended a couple of feet or so into the third compartment, and also into the first compartment and the passage.

Referring to the fragments of pottery found in the chamber of the cairn of Unstan, Dr Anderson stated that having carefully examined the whole of them, it appears that the total number of different vessels they represented must be somewhere about thirty. Of these, however, only six or eight have been found capable of reconstruction, so as to show their complete form and the character of their ornamentation.”

In the Long Stalled Chambered Cairn at Midhowe,  Graham Callander and Walter G. Grant found a skeleton that they thought must have been lain in the cairn in a sitting position :-

From. “Long Stalled Chambered Cairn or Mausoleum (Rousay TYPE) near Midhowe, Rousay, Orkney . By J. Graham Callander, , and Walter G. Grant”

“About the middle of the cell was a broken skull, part of a lower jaw, and other bones of a second adult. The skeleton of an adult male lay against the north-east corner. The skull was placed upright facing the passage, the knees were well drawn up, and the left humerus stood high, up near the skull. From the position of the pelvis and other bones it appeared that this body had been placed in a sitting position.”

In the Knowe of Yarso cairn, In Rousay. Graham Callander and Walter G. Grant found evidence playful rearrangement of skulls. 

In “A long, stalled cairn , the Knowe of Yarso, In Rousay, Orkney “. BY J. Graham Callander,, and Walter G. Grant, they write:-

“From the outer half, No. 3A, skeletal remains of seven adults and one adolescent were recovered. Skulls of five adults, three fragmentary and two rather better preserved, were found lying at the foot of the wall on the western side, and the remains of the other three individuals in the middle of the cell. But it was cell No. 3B that yielded most of the osseous remains. No less than seventeen adults were represented by skulls usually very much broken, vertebra, fragments of eight femurs, other leg bones, and two humeri. Nine of the skulls were placed in juxtaposition along the foot of the western wall, six along the opposite side, and two about 15 inches from it. In no case was the lower jaw present. A very fine skull was found in the south-west corner of the cell, touching the divisional slab, which doubtless accounts for its good state of preservation. Although some of the skulls arranged along the foot of the wall had suffered from disturbance, it seemed that they had been placed cranium upwards facing the centre of the chamber.”

Talking about the bones they also suggest that some of the long animal bones may have been split to access the marrow within. 

“The quantity of animal bones found was considerable, and consisted almost entirely of red-deer, many being of the size of the best animals existing in Scotland to-day. Bones from thirty-six of these animals were identified. Ox and sheep were just represented, and there were a few bones of a good-sized dog. Many limpets were found and fish was represented by wrasse. 

The bones were distributed throughout the relic bed of the chamber, but, as already mentioned, were more numerous in the inner half. They were much broken, and included teeth, ribs, and many articular ends and splinters of leg bones. The latter presumably had been deliberately split to get at the marrow. Many of the Yarso animal bones showed distinct marks of scorching and burning.”

At the Knowe of Ramsay a wide variety of animal bones were found. 

From “A Stalled Chambered Cairn , the Knowe of Ramsay, at Hullion, Rousay, Orkney “. By J. Graham Callander, and Walter G. Grant 

“Bones of animals were numerous, and there were a few of birds and one of a fish. They included red-deer, sheep and ox, great auk, bittern, cormorant, curlew, duck, sea or white-tailed eagle, pink-footed goose, and conger-eel. Many of the animal bones were broken or splintered, and some, as we have seen, were scorched.”

...and in the bone report Margery Platt recognises that the creatures who owned the bones may have been eaten. 

Report on the Animal Bones found in the Chambered Cairn, Knowe of Ramsay, Rousay, Orkney. By Margery Platt, M.Sc., Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh.

“In this cell there was little evidence of calcination. Two bird bones occurred—the humerus of a Cormorant (Phalacrocorax c. Carbo, L.) and the ulna of a Gannet (Sula bassana, L.), together with the shell of a common periwinkle (Littorina littorea, L.) from the shore.

The species occurring most often is the Gannet, which was used for food extensively in the past and up to recent days still contributed a staple diet for islanders, such as St Kildans. The flesh of the Garefowl or Great Auk was, in addition, greatly prized by fishermen and coast-dwelling tribes in the past. “

In Seren Griffiths' listing of human bone carbon dating there a total of 88 samples of which 4 are excluded as not making sense (to me), leaving 84, of which 13 are likely to be after 3000BC. Many of these 13 are said to be from cists, or in rubble infill, and likely therefore to have been laid or accumulated when the cairn was at least partially ruined. 

A study of the bones and consequently, of the people who owned the bones has been carried out by David Lawrence, in his thesis, ”Orkneys First Farmers, Reconstructing biographies from osteological analysis to gain Insights into life and society in a Neolithic community on the Edge of Atlantic Europe”.

At Isbister, he studied a group of skeletons who represented a group of 85 people, half of whom were younger than 25 years old, and half older.

In those that he could establish a gender, 15 were probably female, and 28 probably male. 

The most striking feature of David’s and other studies of Orkney skeletons is the high prevalence of evidence of violence, as 20% of those skulls that survived at Isbister Cairn carried evidence of injuries that might have been caused by direct blows to the head using various types of weapon. Both sexes and all ages were affected. 

Another fracture wound which was present in 10% of little finger bones that were found was thought to be caused by a poorly delivered fist punch.   

In his “Summary of Trauma” David says:-

“The large number of crania with fractures reflects (often deadly) interpersonal violence. Fracture form included circular blunt force trauma consistent with a direct mace blow or slingshot strike, linear and ovoid blunt force trauma consistent with clubs, weapon hafts or rocks, narrow penetrating trauma consistent with a pointed weapon such as a spear or arrow with a sharpened tip or an antler pick; and sharp force trauma consistent with a glancing axe. The Multiple lesions of IS(7284) and IS(1973) particularly indicate close contact rather than missile attack, with IS(1972) probably being ‘finished off’ with a cluster of blows after being stunned: the shape of the anterior lesion implicating a blunt weapon with circular cross-section, whilst the lateral lesions suggest use of considerable force producing fractures of similar size and therefore all consistent with a single weapon. The stone fragment embedded in IS(7114) might be taphonomic but, associated with a closely fitting endocranial hinged spall seems more likely to be part of a broken weapon, perhaps carved intentionally but possibly a weapon of convenience. The close Similarity of the circular penetrating lesions in IS(1957) and ABDUA90046, with peripheral crushing also seems more likely to derive from hand weapons, as do the examples of sharp force trauma (IS7280) and IS(2640). Other blunt force trauma has punched out Bone discs and sometimes split crania (e.g. IS(7207)). Fractured or dislocated mandibles (IS(1973), IS(6703) and ABDUA90037) however could equally result from empty-handed assault (consistent with observed metacarpal fractures) as armed attack.

The majority of longbone fractures observed seem, in contrast, consistent with an accidental origin. All those recorded were well-healed, which supports a distinction in aetiology from at least some cranial fractures. Radius fracture seems rather common (about 4% of right adult radii) and there is a greater Prevalence of radius trauma to the right side than the left, as there is of distal Degenerative Joint Disease. This may imply that trauma relates to handedness , which might suggest that it does not occur only as a result of symmetrical activity but the sample of fractures alone is small and the difference In numbers is statistically insignificant. Perhaps more importantly, Colles Fracture tends to occur in adults after the age of 40 years and is not common in youth (Adams 1962:139-140). This would be consistent with an age-related Element to some of the vertebral crush fractures recorded, whilst other cases of vertebral trauma  are more likely violence related.

It may be significant that the right metacarpals also seem to have been more prone to injury than the left, including both trauma and enthesopathy but not Degenerative Joint Disease. The prevalence of fifth metacarpal fracture is highly suggestive of interpersonal violence, which supports observations on the crania but has no obvious direct relationship to trauma of the radius.”

Also, of some significance, is the frequency of severe wounds, including head injuries, that had been survived, and had healed, allowing the individual to return to some sort of active life. 

In some cases, these healed wounds, in spite of healing well,  led to secondary osteoarthritis, and secondary degenerative joint disease in the adjoining bones, affecting bodily posture.

“One individual had two healed lesions to the left posterior parietal and one had a healed left Superior parietal lesion as well as apparent damage (crushing or subluxation?) at the left Squamosal suture.”

“One individual had healed wounds that may have been delivered following a stunning blow anteriorly, face-to-face; this might also suggest an initial swinging blow delivered laterally to the point of the jaw or possibly a kick after the individual had fallen.”

Lawrence commented that, “Although some recorded lesions may have been caused by accidents, face-to-Face violence seems to have been endemic.” 

In Summarising Trauma in the Radius bone of the arm Lawrence describes an injury that may have been caused by a fall broken by the outstretched hand, leading to tenderness, osteoporosis and Restricted use of the fingers, hand and wrist (McRae 1994:178). The well-healed appearance of the break suggested that the ulnae may not have been similarly affected or that a repair was effected by the use of a splint.

Finding a fractured finger bone, he describes ”a healed Case of a spiral (or possibly oblique) fracture, typically caused by shearing Forces whilst delivering an unskilled blow with a clenched fist, or by twisting of The little finger (Dandy 1993:224). “

In a Lower Limb injury :- “ The near normal alignment and the well-healed nature of the lesion suggest that this is the result of a green-stick fracture in youth . “

And In a foot injury:- “This appears to be a well-Healed oblique fracture that may have been associated with soft tissue damage. Apposition remained close but rotation and displacement of the distal element may have deformed the foot and caused ambulatory difficulties.”

Serious Injury of the individual did not automatically foretell an early death.

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