In Conclusion

 

The Orkney Riddle 

Conclusion

The Theory here, begins with people in Early Neolithic times being able to walk from Caithness to Orkney until 3000BC., it continues by suggesting that a land bridge that joined Caithness to Orkney was washed away at that date. 

The evidence that I hope I have demonstrated to support the theory is as follows:-

The population of Orkney drops after 3000BC. 

Barnhouse and many small settlements are abandoned in 3000BC. 

The Stones of Stenness and Ring of Brodgar are abandoned, unfinished, probably at that date. 

The Westray islands are (mostly) abandoned at 3000BC, and not colonised again until the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. 

Skara Brae, and the Ness of Brodgar, both have dated deposits from before 3000BC indicating some kind of occupation, but not till after 3000BC are the revolutionary solid structures with stone lined drains and other necessary amenities designed and constructed. 

The dates of the human bones found in the cairns are largely assessed to before 3000BC, and the dates of the animal bones, which were arguably being eaten by people, are largely after 3000BC, when a few groups of people isolated from mainland Britain, may have sought desperate refuge. 

It is possible that the people of the early Neolithic in Northwestern Europe were wholly nomadic, leaving only footprints before 3000BC. 

As sea levels rose it also likely that Atlantic tides broke through land bridges between Ireland and Britain, and between Britain and Europe. 

It was only after 3000BC that the first features of Stonehenge were installed, and not until the second half of the 3rd millennium BC that seagoing vessels were developed. 

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All views and opinions expressed are my own, but it remains a work-in-progress for which positive criticism and comment is welcomed.

Jeffery Nicholls 

South Ronaldsay 

Orkney 

The Orkney Riddle is a series of blogs promoting the notion that Neolithic people walked from Scotland to Orkney to build the Ring of Brodgar. 

#Orkney #archaeology #Neolithic #prehistory #British #SkaraBrae #NessofBrodgar #BIIS ##Britice-Chrono 

The Swifterbant Culture

 

The Orkney Riddle

The Swifterbant Culture 

The Swifterbant Culture represents the tribes that occupied northern Europe,  and are likely to have interacted with Britain in the 5th millennium BC. 

 

From:-

"New evidence on the earliest domesticated animals and possible small‑scale husbandry inAtlantic NW Europe" by Philippe Crombé, et al

"The coastal lowlands of Northwest Europe are situated at the periphery of the extensive loess belt of Centraland West Europe, which was colonized in the course of the 6th millennium cal BC by migrating farmers from the Near East and Anatolia. The transition from (Mesolithic) hunter-gatherers to (Neolithic) farmers-herders in this coastal lowland area  has been debated by numerous scholars over the past decades. The debate centers around two opposing models. The frst advocates a long-term and gradual transition towards farming and herding starting early in the 5th millennium cal BC, a process in which local hunter-gatherers played asignifcant role (acculturation/cultural difusion model). The second model, on the other hand, considers a rapid introduction of domesticates near the end of the 5th millennium cal BC, more precisely around ca. 4300 cal BC in the Netherlands and ca. 4100/4000 cal BC in theUK, northernGermany and southern Scandinavia. According to some, the speed of transition suggests demic difusion of pioneering farmers from Central Europeinto the lowlands of NWEurope, as recently supported by genetic evidence, although not all scholars agree on this."

"The Neolithization process of the Lower Scheldt basin. 

The presence of domesticated animals and possible small-scale husbandry from ca. 4800–4600 cal BC onwards, implies that farmer/hunter-gatherer interaction along the NW border of the agro-pastoral frontier was much more intense and drastic than previously thought, and may have involved more than mere exchange of “exotic” goods.

Indeed, local stock breeding demands a transmission of knowledge e.g. through training by skilled specialists which implies direct and prolonged involvement of farmers/herders from the loess areas. This is corroborated by the material culture, which also underwent drastic changes at precisely the same moment. Between 4800 and 4600 cal BC new knapping techniques appeared within the local “Mesolithic” lithic traditions, focusing on the production of thick fakes and new tool types, such as splintered and facetted tools. This was accompanied by new activities, as indicated by new types of micro- and macroscopic use wear traces on lithic tools, e.g. crushing and grinding of animal bone. The start of local pottery production by hunter-gatherers of the Scheldt river valley (Swiferbant Culture), using local clays, must have started during this same period. These new technologies present clear affities with post-LBK cultures, in particular with the Blicquy/Villeneuve-Saint-Germain Culture (ca. 5000/4950 – 4750/4650 cal BC) and later the Rössen Culture (ca. 4700 – 4450 cal BC). 

As such, these changes point to increased infuence of farmer-herders from the loess area. The transfer of technological know-how must have required close and long-term interactions between the farmer-herders and hunter-gatherer population groups, which might have involved the migration of specialists or even inter marriage. This is certainly the case for the pottery production, which represents an entirely new technology in hunter-gatherer context, that required new knowledge of raw materials and the development of new motor habits, i.e. motions and body postures that were previously not used for other activities. The same holds for keeping local livestock consisting of diferent species.At first glance, all this seems in contradiction with genetic evidence from the Central European loess area mainly from central and southern Germany, which points to limited (< 10%, max. 17%) interaction and admixture between both populations before ca. 4000 cal BC, and thus genetic continuity over a period of ca.1500 years. 

However, the first recently published genetic evidence from northern France, demonstrates much more hunter-gatherer ancestry in early farmer’s genes in western Europe compared to central and SE Europe,which fits the conclusions of the present study. Interestingly, the predominance of cattle over sheep/goat within the assemblage of Bazel perfectly mirrors the livestock within the different succeeding agro-pastoral Cultures of the loess region, characterized by a cattle-based economy in which sheep/goat only played a minor role (ca.6/10% to 20%). This cattle-based economy has been linked to increased milk consumption based on the recurrent detection of dairy residues associated with early Neolithic pottery, traces of which have recently also been detected in some Swiferbant Culture potsherds from Bazel (research in progress).

Conclusions. The present study irrefutably proofs the presence of domesticated sheep/goat and most likely also cattle from ca.4800/4600 cal BC along the NW margins of the agro-pastoral frontier, and hence supports the model viewing the neolithization of NW Europa as a long-term process. In addition the isotope data, although not yet fully conclusive, seems to be in favor of small-scale husbandry from the very beginning. If this is confrmed by future, more in-depth isotope analyses, it demonstrates that farmer-herders had a considerable impact on hunter-gatherer’s subsistence as early as the frst half of the 5th millennium cal BC. Clearly before 4800/4600 cal BC contact and interaction with farmer-herders from the LBK was limited to the exchange of “exotic” commodities, such as decorated pottery. This changed markedly with the development of the subsequent Blicquy/Villeneuve-Saint Germain and Rössen Cultures. Contact intensifed resulting in a transfer of knowledge on pottery production,the production of new stone tools (with new functions) and likely also herding. In this sense the frst half of the 5th millennium cal BC was a turning point for hunter-gatherers living in the lowlands along the margins of the agro-pastoral frontier, corresponding to the “substitution phase” or “Introduction phase”. It was the start of a totally new lifeway which probably would culminate into a fully agrarian society in the course of the second half of the 5th millennium cal BC, around 4000 cal BC at the latest. The latter might have been triggered by the tidal fooding events in the Lower Scheldt valley which certainly will have reduced the availability of edible plants and wild game considerably. On the other hand flooding might have offered better conditions for local agriculture, through the deposition of more fertile tidal mud, including clay and silt, in an overall sandy environment."

*

Jeffery Nicholls 

South Ronaldsay 

Orkney 

The Orkney Riddle (index here) is a series of blogs promoting the notion that Neolithic people walked from Scotland to Orkney to build the Ring of Brodgar. 

#Orkney #archaeology #Neolithic #prehistory #British #SkaraBrae #NessofBrodgar #BIIS ##Britice-Chrono 

'Dem Bones, Dem Bones

 

The Orkney Riddle

'Dem Bones, Dem Bones 

A study of the bones and consequently, of the people who owned the bones has been carried out by David Lawrence, in his thesis, ”Orkneys First Farmers, Reconstructing biographies from osteological analysis to gain Insights into life and society in a Neolithic community on the Edge of Atlantic Europe”.

At Isbister, he studied a group of skeletons who represented a group of 85 people, half of whom were younger than 25 years old, and half older.

In those that he could establish a gender, 15 were probably female, and 28 probably male. 

The most striking feature of David’s and other studies of Orkney skeletons is the high prevalence of evidence of violence, as 20% of those skulls that survived at Isbister Cairn carried evidence of injuries that might have been caused by direct blows to the head using various types of weapon. Both sexes and all ages were affected. 

Another fracture wound which was present in 10% of little finger bones that were found was thought to be caused by a poorly delivered fist punch.   

In his “Summary of Trauma” David says:-

“The large number of crania with fractures reflects (often deadly) interpersonal violence. Fracture form included circular blunt force trauma consistent with a direct mace blow or slingshot strike, linear and ovoid blunt force trauma consistent with clubs, weapon hafts or rocks, narrow penetrating trauma consistent with a pointed weapon such as a spear or arrow with a sharpened tip or an antler pick; and sharp force trauma consistent with a glancing axe. The Multiple lesions of IS(7284) and IS(1973) particularly indicate close contact rather than missile attack, with IS(1972) probably being ‘finished off’ with a cluster of blows after being stunned: the shape of the anterior lesion implicating a blunt weapon with circular cross-section, whilst the lateral lesions suggest use of considerable force producing fractures of similar size and therefore all consistent with a single weapon. The stone fragment embedded in IS(7114) might be taphonomic but, associated with a closely fitting endocranial hinged spall seems more likely to be part of a broken weapon, perhaps carved intentionally but possibly a weapon of convenience. The close Similarity of the circular penetrating lesions in IS(1957) and ABDUA90046, with peripheral crushing also seems more likely to derive from hand weapons, as do the examples of sharp force trauma (IS7280) and IS(2640). Other blunt force trauma has punched out Bone discs and sometimes split crania (e.g. IS(7207)). Fractured or dislocated mandibles (IS(1973), IS(6703) and ABDUA90037) however could equally result from empty-handed assault (consistent with observed metacarpal fractures) as armed attack.

The majority of longbone fractures observed seem, in contrast, consistent with an accidental origin. All those recorded were well-healed, which supports a distinction in aetiology from at least some cranial fractures. Radius fracture seems rather common (about 4% of right adult radii) and there is a greater Prevalence of radius trauma to the right side than the left, as there is of distal Degenerative Joint Disease. This may imply that trauma relates to handedness , which might suggest that it does not occur only as a result of symmetrical activity but the sample of fractures alone is small and the difference In numbers is statistically insignificant. Perhaps more importantly, Colles Fracture tends to occur in adults after the age of 40 years and is not common in youth (Adams 1962:139-140). This would be consistent with an age-related Element to some of the vertebral crush fractures recorded, whilst other cases of vertebral trauma are more likely violence related.

It may be significant that the right metacarpals also seem to have been more prone to injury than the left, including both trauma and enthesopathy but not Degenerative Joint Disease. The prevalence of fifth metacarpal fracture is highly suggestive of interpersonal violence, which supports observations on the crania but has no obvious direct relationship to trauma of the radius.”

Also, of some significance, is the frequency of severe wounds, including head injuries, that had been survived, and had healed, allowing the individual to return to some sort of active life. 

In some cases, these healed wounds, in spite of healing well, led to secondary osteoarthritis, and secondary degenerative joint disease in the adjoining bones, affecting bodily posture.

“One individual had two healed lesions to the left posterior parietal and one had a healed left Superior parietal lesion as well as apparent damage (crushing or subluxation?) at the left Squamosal suture.”

“One individual had healed wounds that may have been delivered following a stunning blow anteriorly, face-to-face; this might also suggest an initial swinging blow delivered laterally to the point of the jaw or possibly a kick after the individual had fallen.”

Lawrence commented that, “Although some recorded lesions may have been caused by accidents, face-to-Face violence seems to have been endemic.” 

In Summarising Trauma in the Radius bone of the arm Lawrence describes an injury that may have been caused by a fall broken by the outstretched hand, leading to tenderness, osteoporosis and Restricted use of the fingers, hand and wrist (McRae 1994:178). The well-healed appearance of the break suggested that the ulnae may not have been similarly affected or that a repair was effected by the use of a splint.

Finding a fractured finger bone, he describes ”a healed Case of a spiral (or possibly oblique) fracture, typically caused by shearing Forces whilst delivering an unskilled blow with a clenched fist, or by twisting of The little finger (Dandy 1993:224). “

In a Lower Limb injury :- “ The near normal alignment and the well-healed nature of the lesion suggest that this is the result of a green-stick fracture in youth . “

And In a foot injury:- “This appears to be a well-Healed oblique fracture that may have been associated with soft tissue damage. Apposition remained close but rotation and displacement of the distal element may have deformed the foot and caused ambulatory difficulties.”

Serious Injury of the individual did not automatically foretell an early death.

All views and opinions expressed are my own, but it remains a work-in-progress for which positive criticism and comment is welcomed.

*

Jeffery Nicholls 

South Ronaldsay 

Orkney 

The Orkney Riddle (index here) is a series of blogs promoting the notion that Neolithic people walked from Scotland to Orkney to build the Ring of Brodgar. 

#Orkney #archaeology #Neolithic #prehistory #British #SkaraBrae #NessofBrodgar #BIIS ##Britice-Chrono 

Aurochs

 

The Orkney Riddle

Aurochs 

The following commentary is from:- "Excavation of a Neolithic farmstead at Knap of Howar, Papa Westray, Orkney" by Anna Ritchie

And is in :-

"APPENDIX 4: ANIMAL BONE FROM KNAP OF HOWAR, B A NODDLE, Department of Anatomy, University College, Cardiff"

There, the author discusses the dimensions and probable sizes of cattle bones found on the site, suggesting that they are close to aurochs in size.

"As Watson stated in his Skara Brae report, the cattle are indeed large. The measurements set outin fig 20 are considerably larger than the writer has encountered at other periods, being roughly similar toa collection of Friesian beef cattle in her collection (these were not fully grown animals). Fig 20 also contains an estimate of body weight reduced from various measurements on the astragalus which originallyderived from these same Friesian cattle in part (Noddle 1973). The lightest of these animals overlap theheaviest weights found for later animals (Saxon, from Norfolk; Noddle 1975). Fig 21 comprises a comparison of the width of the first phalanx compared with two groups of English Neolithic cattle from Durrington Walls (Harcourt in Wainwright & Longworth1971,265-76) and Windmill Hill (Grigson in Smith1965,141-67) and with a collection of Danish Maglemosian aurochs taken from Grigson (1969). The Knap of Howar specimens are rather larger than both these English examples and overlap the lighter aurochs. Furthermore, they form a continuous series, whereas both English sites include a few discrete larger specimens which were designated wild aurochs by their authors. The Knap of Howar specimens are comparable with certain continental examples discussed by Grigson (1969) and believed by her and the continental authors to be recently domesticated aurochs. This explanation would seem to apply to Knap of Howar material."

The following chart extracts dates of death of cattle/aurochs in Orkney for the Neolithic period. The sources for this work are:-

To cut a long story short: formal chronological modelling for the Late Neolithic site of Ness of Brodgar, Orkney by Nick Card et al

Beside the Ocean of Time: a chronology of Neolithic burial monuments and houses in Orkney, by Seren Griffiths 

The limits of the dates of death of each beast are given by the sources as better than 95% accurate, and this leads to some lengthy periods of time in which an animal may have died. Over-lengthy periods of death possibility have been removed from the chart.

The sites covered include the Knap of Howar, the Ness of Brodgar, and many Orkney cairns. 

All views and opinions expressed are my own, but it remains a work-in-progress for which positive criticism and comment is welcomed.

Jeffery Nicholls 

South Ronaldsay 

Orkney 

The Orkney Riddle (index here) is a series of blogs promoting the notion that Neolithic people walked from Scotland to Orkney to build the Ring of Brodgar. 

#Orkney #archaeology #Neolithic #prehistory #British #SkaraBrae #NessofBrodgar #BIIS ##Britice-Chrono