They Must Have had Boats!

 

Series Title:- The Orkney Riddle

3/29

Blog Title:- They Must Have Had Boats!

The persistent belief is that Neolithic people had boats. Sheridan (below) and others, have confidently detailed where the maritime trade routes went between Europe and Britain. So, it must be right, mustn't it?

The map of Neolithic trade routes appears in:- "ScARF Summary Neolithic Report June 2012: Kenny Brophy & Alison Sheridan (editors) "

However, the only mention of boats in that report is the following:-

"Much more direct evidence is needed regarding organic artefacts and structures of all kinds: while we can see that organic resources were skilfully used, we only have a tiny snapshot of the full range of materials and uses. For example, we suspect that curragh-like boats had been used to transport the first farmers and their resources to Scotland, and that logboats had been used for onshore and inland water transport, but so far the earliest dated example of a logboat is Early Bronze Age"

There follows the academic understanding of the evidence for water transport around British shorelines from:- "Ships and Boats:Prehistory to 1840 Introductions to Heritage Assets (Historic England)"

"Early Prehistoric (500,000-4000 BC)

Speculation about the development of water transport during the early prehistoric period is widespread, and some commentators have even suggested that the first boat, as opposed to a log ‘raft’, may have simply been a log hollowed out by disease.

It is believed that Palaeolithic watercraft in north-west Europe were most likely limited to the use of log or hide floats and/or rafts in inland waters, particularly as there is no evidence for the waterborne movement of peoples between the British landmass and continental Europe during pre-Holocene interglacial periods (that is, before about 10,000 BC).

Archaeological opinion remains divided as to whether seaworthy vessels would have been available before the Holocene. However, the separation of the British Isles from the north-west European peninsula at the end of the last glacial period, around 12-13,000 years ago, meant that contact across the English Channel and southern North Sea required some form of vessel: multiple-hide boats, perhaps similar to coracles, and basket boats are thought to have been capable of sea voyages at this time.

Although it is probable that dugout canoes were used by Mesolithic peoples as well as log rafts, log boats and bark boats, there is no direct evidence for them in Britain. With the exception of a birch-wood paddle recorded at Star Carr, North Yorkshire, a possible logboat found at Thurlestone, Devon, in the 1920s and a late Mesolithic/early Neolithic burial in a partially burnt dugout canoe found at Parkbury, St. Albans (Hertfordshire) in 1988, physical evidence for vessels in the early prehistoric period remains very scarce.

Late Prehistoric (4000-54 BC) Vessels traversing the western seaways were fundamental to the spread of Neolithic farming, funerary and other systems from the Continent during the early part of the late prehistoric period. In England, Neolithic dugout canoes are only known from Bexley, Greater London (discovered 1885), Jaywick, Essex (discovered 1936), Whittlesey, Cambridgeshire (discovered 1979) and East Rea, Peterborough (also discovered 1979), although it is not known whether these vessels would have been capable of offshore navigation.

However, the most far-reaching innovation in vessel construction at this time was the introduction of plank construction, whereby cut planks were fastened (in most cases, stitched) together to form a watertight hull.

Although the precise date of this innovation is not known, it has been suggested (although no examples have been found) that simple plank boats may have traversed inland waterways during the Neolithic. 

The earliest seagoing stitched boats yet discovered is a collection of three Middle Bronze Age vessels discovered at Ferriby, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, in 1937 and the Dover Boat discovered in 1992, in addition to fragments from the Test Estuary near Southampton and Kilnsea in the Humber region: these are, in fact, the earliest vessels known worldwide.

The Ferriby craft is thought to have been around 16m long while that at Dover has a minimum length of 9.5m. Such vessels were probably too large to navigate in inland waters and, in the absence of smaller plank-built vessels, it is likely that dugout canoes were used inland. 

Two dugouts discovered in northern England (the Chetwynd boat, found in Shropshire in 1981, and the Shardlow boat, found in Derbyshire in 1998) may represent such craft. However, a 12m long flat-bottomed raft was discovered at Brigg, Lincolnshire, in 1888 which was clearly unsuitable for coastal passage having a freeboard (the distance between the waterline and the lowest point of a vessel where water could come onboard) of about only 0.3m.

The quantity of imported material discovered during archaeological investigation on land indicates the amount of cross-Channel trade taking place before the Roman conquest in 43 AD. The proximity of the Dover Boat to the designated Bronze Age artefact assemblage discovered offshore in Langdon Bay, off Kent, suggests crossChannel trade and contact at that time. 

Evidence from other designated underwater assemblages at Salcombe (including the only Bronze Age tin ingots found outside the eastern Mediterranean, and a bronze object from Sicily) and Moor Sands, Devon, presumably represents cargo from ocean going vessels, while finds from off Southend, Hayling Island and Bournemouth are indicative of complex trade routes having been established by the Bronze Age. 

As no evidence for the use of sails at this time has yet been discovered, it is assumed that propulsion was by punting (for rivers) or paddling; it is thought that the Dover Boat could accommodate at least 18 paddlers. A 2m long oak blade discovered at Canewdon, Essex, in 1983 showed no traces of having been used as an oar or steering oar, suggesting its use was most likely as a paddle.

The continued use of plank-built vessels into the Iron Age has not yet been proven. A dugout canoe constructed from a single oak tree but with a fitted transom (the vertical surface forming the stern of a vessel) was discovered in Poole, Dorset, 1964.

Here, the added transom demonstrates a method employed to extend a vessel’s length; now on display in Poole Museum, the vessel is thought to have been capable of carrying up to 18 people. The numerous Iron Age dugouts discovered throughout England in both coastal and inland locations, most recently in 2001 when two 7m-long oak dugouts were found in peat alongside the River Witham at Fiskerton, near Lincoln, suggests their widespread use at this time.

By the late Iron Age ships had evolved in northern Europe, and Julius Caesar’s Gallic Wars evidences various ocean-going vessels. Describing fighting on the Atlantic coast in 56 BC, Caesar comments that the Gauls’ ships were rigged differently to Roman ones; that their exceptionally high bows and sterns fitted them for use in heavy seas; while oak hulls allowed them to withstand shock and rough usage. 

Significantly, Caesar remarks that some of these vessels’ timbers comprised beams a foot wide fastened with iron bolts ‘as thick as a man’s thumb.’ Sadly, the remains of such sturdy vessels are not yet known in England despite evidence of cross-Channel trade at places like Hengistbury Head, Dorset, since at least the Neolithic period"

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From National Trust, Northern Ireland:-

A Neolithic log boat at Strangford Lough in Northern Ireland sits where it was abandoned in prehistory in the sands at Greyabbey Bay. It is probably the oldest dated boat in Britain. 

A sample of the wood from this vessel was radiocarbon-dated to between 3,499 and 3,032 BC

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The Ferriby Boats 

 

From:- New AMS radiocarbon dates for the North Ferriby boats-a contribution to dating prehistoric seafaring in northwestern Europe EDWARD V. WRIGHT, ROBERT E.M. HEDGES, ALEX BAYLISS & ROBERT VAN DE NOORT

"Introduction

The Ferriby boats (F1, F2 and F3) were discovered on the Humber foreshore between 1937 and 1963 (Wright &Wright 1939; Wright 1990; FIGURES1&2).

All three boats have been dated to the Bronze Age and are similar in design: planks are stitched together with yew withies, and systems of cleats with transverse timbers provide structural integrity to the hull, which was perhaps amplified by inserted frames. 

These craft, with other related British finds, constitute an unparalleled series that provides insight into the mechanisms of prehistoric transport. Previously, it was generally assumed that these boats were used predominantly for inland water transport, but a more recent assessment argued that the craft were used for long-distance exchange, including seafaring (Van de Noort et al. 1999). 

Sewn-plank boats are sofar unique to the coastal wafers of England and Wales, sharply contrasting with the distribution of log-boats of prehistoric date which concentrate around inland waterways. No prehistoric sewn-plank craft are known from the Continent, except for the much later Hjortspring canoe from Iron Age Denmark (Rosenberg 1937). 

When F1 and F2 were excavated in 1946, radiocarbon dating had not been discovered, and their conservation preceded the first attempts to date the boats by radiocarbon assay. F3 was discovered in 1963, but conserved without samples being removed for dating. The sample size required for conventional (radiometric) dating meant that uncontaminated short-lived material could not be obtained for each boat. Furthermore, the chemical processing that could be applied was constrained by the limited amount of wood available. The current dating programme was prompted by the concentration of the surviving timbers in Hull and East Riding Museum in the early 199os, facilitating the selection of short-lived samples from each boat for AMS dating. Further impetus to refine the chronology of these finds was provided by the discovery of the examples of sewn-plank boats from Caldicot, Dover, Goldcliff, and Kilnsea (McGrail 1997;Clark forthcoming; Bell et al. 2000;Van de Noort et al. 1999). "

F1; OxA-7457, OxA-9236-7 and OxA-9519-20. 1880-1680calBC

F2; OxA-7458 and OxA-9521-2. 1940-1720calAC

F3; OxA-9198-9 andOxA-9524. 2030-1780calBC

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A general view of early water transport is given here by yhe National Maritime Museum. It suggests that the earliest boats were built by the Egyptians, who used them to trade with other countries in the Mediterranean Sea. 

Shipbuilding: The earliest vessels (National Maritime Museum, Greenwich)

People have travelled by sea using ships and boats for centuries. The Egyptians, Greeks and Phoenicians made some of the earliest vessels. 

For thousands of years, people have wanted to move on the water. They have used boats and ships to fish, to travel, to explore, to trade or to fight. Throughout the time that people have been building boats and ships, they have made changes to them, to make travelling on the water easier, faster and safer.

The first boats

No one knows exactly when the first boat was invented. Long ago, people probably discovered that they could keep themselves afloat by clinging onto fallen logs or bundles of reed. Gradually, they learnt how to hollow out logs to make rafts.

Egyptian ships

Egyptians were among the earliest ship builders. The oldest pictures of boats that have ever been found are Egyptian, on vases and in graves. These pictures, at least 6000 years old, show long, narrow boats. They were mostly made of papyrus reeds and rowed using paddles. The Egyptians used their ships to trade with other countries around the Mediterranean sea.

Greeks and Phoenicians galleys

Between 1200 and 900 BC, the Greeks and the Phoenicians began to build up their sea trade. They used galleys, both as merchant ships for trading, and as warships. Rowers powered the fighting galleys, sitting in one, two or three lines. The Phoenicians made many long sea journeys, but stayed quite close to the coast. One of the places they sailed to was Cornwall, looking for tin.

Galleys continued to be used as late as the 18th century. The main weapon of the galley was a ram, a pointed piece of wood fixed to the front, or bow of the ship. The ram was crashed at fast speeds into the side of the enemy ship. The galleys also carried archers and men with spears. Sometimes they were fitted with a mast and one square sail, but they were taken down during battles.

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The following is a discussion from  scienceinsights.org, which examines the relatively calm waters of the Mediterranean Sea. 

Are There Tides in the Mediterranean Sea? (Scienceinsights.org)

November 10, 2025

The Mediterranean Sea, a vast, enclosed body of water bordered by three continents, appears large enough to experience the rhythmic rise and fall of oceanic tides. While the gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun do act upon the water, the resulting astronomical tides are extremely small and often go unnoticed by coastal observers. This minimal tidal activity is a result of geographical and physical constraints, combined with the influence of meteorological conditions that frequently overshadow the tiny astronomical fluctuations.

The Mediterranean’s Minimal Tidal Range

The astronomical tide in the Mediterranean Sea is classified as micro-tidal, meaning the tidal range—the difference between high and low water—is consistently less than two meters. Across much of the basin, the mean tidal range averages only about 30 centimeters, or roughly one foot. These small fluctuations are true gravitational tides, adhering to the predictable cycles dictated by the Sun and Moon. Specific tidal patterns, such as diurnal (one high and one low tide per day) and semi-diurnal (two high and two low tides per day) cycles, are present, though their amplitudes are minute.

The small scale of the Mediterranean tide is apparent in most coastal regions, where the rise and fall rarely exceeds a few centimeters. A few regional exceptions exist where the tidal range can be amplified due to localized bathymetry. For example, the Gulf of Gabes off the coast of Tunisia and certain parts of the northern Adriatic Sea can exhibit a tidal range nearing 1.8 meters, which is a significant outlier. Even in these locations, the tidal range remains modest compared to most open ocean coasts.

Geographic Constraints Suppressing Tides

The primary reason for the Mediterranean’s suppressed tides is its narrow and shallow connection to the Atlantic Ocean: the Strait of Gibraltar. This strait acts as a severe restriction on the massive tidal wave that sweeps across the open Atlantic, physically preventing the gravitational fluctuations from flowing freely into the Mediterranean basin.

The Strait of Gibraltar is only about 14 kilometers wide at its narrowest point and contains a shallow ridge known as the Camarinal Sill. This sill limits the volume of water that can pass back and forth with each tidal cycle. The narrow aperture and shallow depth effectively throttle the flow, preventing the establishment of the large, oscillating tidal wave necessary to generate significant tides within the basin.

The sea’s relatively small size and enclosed shape also inhibit the development of tidal resonance, a mechanism that amplifies tides in some bays and seas. Resonance occurs when the natural period of the water sloshing back and forth within a basin matches the period of the astronomical tide. Because the Mediterranean’s dimensions do not align with the lunar and solar periods, the tidal energy that enters the sea cannot build up into a standing wave large enough to produce substantial tidal ranges.

Non-Tidal Water Level Variationsj

In the Mediterranean, water level fluctuations not caused by astronomical gravity often exceed the actual tide, leading to confusion about the source of sea level changes. These non-tidal variations are primarily meteorological, driven by wind and changes in atmospheric pressure. This means the most noticeable changes in water level are erratic and unpredictable, rather than cyclical and regular like true tides.

Strong, sustained winds pushing water toward a coast can cause a temporary storm surge, significantly raising the water level in a localized area. Conversely, offshore winds can drive water away, causing an abnormally low level. The inverse barometer effect occurs where a drop in atmospheric pressure causes the sea surface to bulge upward, while high pressure pushes it down. A pressure change of just one millibar corresponds to about a one-centimeter change in sea level.

The most dramatic non-tidal fluctuation is the seiche, a standing wave oscillation that sloshes back and forth within a semi-enclosed body of water. Seiches are often triggered by abrupt changes in atmospheric pressure or sudden wind shifts. A famous example is the acqua alta, or high water, that affects Venice in the northern Adriatic Sea. Here, strong winds and low pressure combine with the basin’s natural sloshing period to create water level rises that are far greater than the negligible local gravitational tide.

How Mediterranean Tides Compare Globally

The Mediterranean Sea is a micro-tidal environment, contrasting sharply with macro-tidal regions globally. While the average Mediterranean tidal range is only around 30 centimeters, open ocean environments frequently exhibit tidal ranges measured in meters. The most extreme example is the Bay of Fundy in Canada, where the funnel shape and perfect tidal resonance result in a tidal range that can exceed 16 meters.

This minimal tidal range has a noticeable impact on human activities and the coastal environment. The lack of strong tidal currents simplifies navigation and passage planning for mariners, who do not have to contend with the powerful flows common in macro-tidal straits. The limited vertical movement of the water means coastal infrastructure, such as ports and docks, requires simpler construction compared to facilities built in areas with meters of daily fluctuation. The intertidal area—the space exposed to air between high and low tide—is extremely narrow, supporting a different array of organisms than is found on shores with substantial tidal exposure.

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The Metrological Office of the UK government provide a fair comparison for UK waters relative to the challenges that Egyptian voyagers faced in prehistoric sea travel.

Met Office explains: Why the waters around the UK are unique (UK government Metreological Office)

The waters surrounding the United Kingdom are among the most distinctive marine environments in the world

The waters surrounding the United Kingdom are shaped by a combination of geological history, powerful tidal forces, and complex oceanographic processes.

These factors create a dynamic and productive marine ecosystem that plays a vital role in regional climate, biodiversity, and forecasting. In this blog entry, we'll be looking at just what is it that makes the waters surrounding the UK so unique.

One of the defining features of UK waters is their relative shallowness, a legacy of the last glaciation. This glacial past sculpted a unique seabed geology, which influences everything from water movement to nutrient distribution. Unlike deeper oceanic regions, the shallow nature of UK seas allows for more direct interaction between the seabed and surface waters, enhancing mixing and biological productivity.

A key driver of this mixing is the presence of strong tidal currents, particularly Kelvin waves, which propagate from south to north. These currents stir the water column, preventing the formation of stratified layers, where warmer, lighter water sits atop cooler, denser water, the same way a layer of olive oil floats on water. This constant mixing not only contributes to the UK’s relatively cool summer sea temperatures but also plays a crucial role in shaping the marine environment.

The impact of these tidal currents extends beyond temperature regulation. By disrupting stratification, they reduce the intensity of marine heatwaves, making them less severe but longer-lasting compared to those in more stratified regions. This mixing also affects the distribution of nutrients and light, fostering unique and highly productive ecosystems that support a wide range of marine life.

These dynamic conditions make UK waters a focal point for advanced oceanographic modelling and forecasting. Scientists use coupled ocean-atmosphere models to study how tidal currents influence climate projections. Collaborations with institutions like the Plymouth Marine Laboratory have enabled the development of phytoplankton forecasts, which are essential for monitoring marine health and predicting ecological changes.

These models also incorporate wave activity and its links to marine heatwaves and phytoplankton blooms, offering a comprehensive view of how physical processes drive biological responses. This integrated approach helps scientists better understand and anticipate changes in the marine environment, which is increasingly important in the face of climate change.

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The detailed movement of water around our coasts is described in justtides.co.uk.

What Are Tidal Currents And How Do They Affect Navigation

Tidal currents are powerful, often unseen forces that move vast amounts of water along coastlines. They are driven by the same gravitational forces that cause tides, but while tides refer to the vertical movement of water (rising and falling), tidal currents describe the horizontal movement of water as it flows in and out of coastal areas.

Understanding how tidal currents work is crucial for navigating coastal waters safely and efficiently. 

Tidal currents refer to the horizontal movement of water caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun on Earth's oceans. Unlike tides, which describe the vertical movement of water (rising and falling), tidal currents move water horizontally, flowing into and out of coastal areas, estuaries, and bays.

Tidal currents are strongest near the coast and in narrow waterways where water must squeeze through confined spaces. These currents can significantly affect navigation, fishing, and even coastal erosion, making it important to understand their behavior.

How Do Tidal Currents Form?

Tidal currents form as a result of the gravitational forces exerted by the moon and the sun on Earth's oceans, combined with the rotation of the Earth. As water levels rise and fall due to the tides, water flows in and out of coastal areas, creating currents. The strength and direction of these currents are influenced by a variety of factors, including:

Geography: Coastal shape, water depth, and underwater topography can all affect how tidal currents form and flow.

Tidal Range: Areas with large differences between high and low tide levels (tidal range) tend to have stronger tidal currents.

Moon Phases: Tidal currents are stronger during spring tides (new and full moons) when the Earth, moon, and sun are aligned.

As the tide rises, water flows inland, creating flood currents. As the tide falls, water flows back out to sea, creating ebb currents.

Flood currents occur when the tide is rising and water is flowing from the ocean into bays, rivers, and coastal areas. These currents push water inland, filling low-lying areas as the tide rises.

Ebb currents occur when the tide is falling and water is flowing from coastal areas back into the ocean. These currents pull water out to sea as the tide lowers.

Understanding the timing and direction of flood and ebb currents is crucial for anyone navigating coastal waters.

How Tidal Currents Affect Navigation

Tidal currents play a significant role in coastal navigation, affecting boats, ships, and other watercraft. Here are a few ways tidal currents can impact navigation:

Tidal currents can either speed up or slow down vessels depending on their direction relative to the current. For example:

With the Current: If a boat is moving in the same direction as the current, it can travel faster and save fuel.

Against the Current: Traveling against a strong current can slow the vessel down and increase fuel consumption.

Navigators need to account for the speed and direction of tidal currents when planning routes to ensure safe and efficient travel.

Navigating Narrow Waterways

In narrow channels and estuaries, tidal currents can be particularly strong. These currents can make it difficult to navigate safely, especially during spring tides when the currents are at their strongest. Boaters should be aware of these currents and plan to navigate during slack tide (when the tide is turning, and currents are weakest) to avoid being swept off course.

Docking and Anchoring

Strong tidal currents can make docking or anchoring tricky, especially in areas with large tidal ranges. Boats anchored in areas with strong currents may drift if not properly secured, and docking against a strong current can be challenging.

Tidal Currents and Coastal Erosion

Tidal currents can also contribute to coastal erosion, particularly in areas where the current is strong. As water flows in and out with the tide, it can carry sand, sediment, and other materials with it. Over time, this movement can reshape coastlines, erode beaches, and even change the depth of waterways.

Erosion During Flood Currents: As water flows inland, it can erode shorelines and carry sediment further inland.

Erosion During Ebb Currents: As water flows back out to sea, it can carry sand and sediment away from the coastline, contributing to the erosion of beaches and dunes.

In areas with strong tidal currents, coastal erosion can be a significant issue, leading to property damage and loss of land over time.

Conclusion

Tidal currents are a powerful force that affects everything from navigation to fishing and coastal erosion. Understanding how tidal currents work — including the difference between flood and ebb currents — is crucial for anyone spending time on or near the water.

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The following plan illustrates the effects of the erosion of sediments in narrow channels. 

The Pentland Firth,  the Minches channel, the English Channel,  and the North channel of the Irish Sea are all narrow channels experiencing almost continuous high velocity currents, and depleted by the sea currents, of any seabed sediment,  down to bedrock. 

As the shortest crossings between major settlements on the islands of Britain, being visible from island to island in Neolithic Britain would have been a tantalising prospect, but getting in a boat at that time would have been suicidal. 

In summary then,  in the 4th millennium BC there were watercraft of various kinds, operating in Europe.  There were dugout craft operating in lakes and harbours where waterborne conditions were generally calm and easily predictable. There were also much more complex craft in the Mediterranean Sea at that time, which was also remarkably placid, but there is no suggestion that these boats were ever intended to explore the open ocean beyond the Gibraltar Strait. 

Next:- "Neolithic Immigrants to Britain" 

Back to the beginning of the Orkney Riddle

Jeffery Nicholls 

South Ronaldsay 

Orkney 

Jiffynorm@yahoo.co.uk